About the DIT

Updated Norms for Defining Issues Test (DIT2-2023) Click Here

Rationale

A common assumption in the field of morality, and one with which we disagree, is that reliable information about the inner processes that underlie moral behavior is obtained only by interviewing subjects. Contrary to assuming that interviewing presents a clear window into the moral mind, researchers in cognitive science and social cognition contend that self-reported explanations of one’s own cognitive process have severe limitations. There is now a greater appreciation for the importance of implicit processes and tacit knowledge on human decision making, outside the awareness of the subject and beyond his or her ability to verbally articulate them. The DIT takes a different approach to information collection.

How It Works

The DIT is a device for activating moral schemas (to the extent that a person has developed them) and for assessing these schemas in terms of importance judgments. The DIT has dilemmas and standard items, and the subject’s task is to rate and rank the items in terms of their moral importance. As the subject encounters an item that makes sense and taps into the subject’s preferred schema, that item is rated and ranked as highly important. Alternatively, when the subject encounters an item that either doesn’t make sense or seems simplistic and unconvincing, the item receives a low rating and is passed over for the next item. The items of the DIT balance “bottom-up” processing (stating just enough of a line of argument to activate a schema) with “top-down” processing (not a full line of argument so that the subject has to “fill in” the meaning from an existing schema). In the DIT, we are interested in knowing which schemas the subject brings to the task. Presumably, those are the schemas that structure and guide the subject’s thinking in decision making beyond the test situation.

The Moral Dilemmas

The complete DIT-1 consists of six dilemmas, as follows: (1) Should Heinz steal a drug from an inventor in town to save his wife who is dying and needs the drug? (2) Should a man who escaped from prison but has since been leading an exemplary life be reported to authorities? (3) Should a student newspaper be stopped by a Principal of a high school when the newspaper stirs controversy in the community? (4) Should a doctor give an overdose of pain-killer to a suffering patient? (5) Should a minority member be hired for a job when the community is biased? (6) Should students take over an administration building in protest of the Vietnam war?

The complete DIT-2 consists of five dilemmas: (1) a father contemplates stealing food for his starving family from the warehouse of a rich man hoarding food; (2) a newspaper reporter must decide whether to report a damaging story about a political candidate; (3) a school board chair must decide whether to hold a contentious and dangerous open meeting; (4) a doctor must decide whether to give an overdose of pain-killer to a suffering but frail patient; (5) college students demonstrate against U.S. foreign policy.

The original six-story DIT-1 takes about 40-50 minutes to complete, and the DIT-2 takes about 30-45 minutes. It is possible to use a “short form” of the DIT (version 1 or 2), which uses only 3 of the stories, which reduces the time for completion to about 20-35 minutes. Shortening the test generally lowers the reliability and power of validity trends reducing reliability by about 10 points (Cronbach’s alpha), and correlations with external variables by about 10 points. To minimize this trade off, certain combinations of stories are recommended. The traditional short form of the DIT-1 consists of the first three stories; the recommended combination for short form use with the DIT-2 is stories 1, 2 and 4, however other combinations are occasionally used depending on the nature of the research.

Recently, an adaption of the DIT was developed for use in behavioral and neuroimaging studies; this version is referred to as the behavioral Defining Issues Test, or bDIT. More information can be found on the bDIT page.

Information Provided by the DIT

Developmental Indices

Personal Interest Schema Score: represents the portion of items selected that appeal to personal interest considerations (Stages 2 and 3 according to the Kohlberg model). These considerations focus on the direct advantages to the actor, fairness of exchanges, good or evil intentions of the parties, concern for maintaining good relationships, and maintaining approval.

Maintaining Norms Schema Score: represents the proportion of items selected that appeal to consideration of maintaining societal norms, including the existing legal system, existing roles and formal organizational structure.

P-Score/Postconventional Schema Score: represents the proportion of items selected that appeal to post conventional considerations (Stages 5 and 6 according to the Kohlberg model). These considerations focus on organizing society by appealing to consensus-producing procedures and in terms of intuitively appealing ideals (i.e. abiding by majority vote, insisting on due process, safeguarding minimal basic rights). The P-Score is considered the original overall index of schema consideration, but has been largely replaced with the newer N2 score, an overall index that has outperformed the P-score in terms of construct validity (see next for description of N2).

N2 Score: is a relatively newer overall index, consisting of the combination of two parts: 1) the degree to which post-conventional items are prioritized (almost identical to the P-score) and 2) the degree to which personal interest items receive lower ratings than the ratings given to post-conventional items. Using the same data as before (the same stories, items, same subjects’ ratings and rankings), this index generally produces more powerful data trends than the previous overall index (the P-Score). In 27 comparisons (sum of first places), the N2 score was the most powerful index, with the exception of one comparison, in which P and N2 were tied.

Developmental Profile & Phase Indices

Consolidation/Transition: Some respondents show little evidence of discrimination among two or more schema-typed items, a marker of developmental disequilibrium, or transition, thus resulting in a “transitional” classification of the developmental profile. Other respondents seem to clearly distinguish among the items, showing a clear preference for a particular schema-type, a marker of developmental consolidation, thus resulting in a “consolidated” developmental profile.

Type Indicator: Depending on schema preference and whether the profile is consolidated or transitional, seven different profile types are possible. Types 1, 4 and 7 are consolidated profiles and 2, 3, 5 and 6 are transitional profiles. As development progresses throughout the life span, one may move from consolidated to transitional profiles with corresponding shifts in schema preference.

Utilizer Score: represents the degree of match between items endorsed as most important and the action choice on that story. This index was conceptualized for use as a moderator variable to increase the predictability of moral judgment to behavior.

Experimental Indices

Number of “Can’t Decide” Choices: represents the decisiveness with which a respondent selects action choices on the DIT. For each of the 5 stories on the DIT2 (6 for the DIT), participants are asked whether the protagonist should or should not act in a certain way, as well as a third option, “can’t decide”. This index is computed according to the number of times the respondent selected the “can’t decide” option; indecision is thought to be (at least in part) a product of the ease with which moral information is processed.

Humanitarian/Liberalism: This variable is a proxy for a humanitarian liberal perspective on moral issues. Early in the development of the DIT, researchers noticed that professionals in political science and philosophy obtained the highest P scores. Scores were so high that Rest used this group to
anchor the upper end of the measure. With subsequent studies it became evident that these “experts in the domain” obtained not only obtained high scores on the DIT but were also quite consistent in their action choices. This variable was created to simply count the number of times a respondent’s choice matches this high scoring group.

Religious Orthodoxy: This variable represents the sum of the rates and ranks for item 9 in the doctor’s dilemma (DIT -1) and a similar story included in the DIT-2. Item 9 evokes the notion that only God can determine whether or not someone should live or die. This variable is computed by adding the rating given to item 9 with the ranking value.

New Checks Total Score: This score helps you see whether the respondents’ scores represent moral thinking ( as the moral judgment construct purports) or are bogus data. The new checks procedure recognizes four problems (listed below) in participant reliability-the same four problems identified with the previous “Standard checks” procedure–but uses a newer and less stringent method for calculating whether a response should be purged for lack of reliability. A respondent’s scores is purged if the New Checks total score is greater than 200. New Checks is a running total of the following four reliability
checks: 1) The problem of random responding, 2) The problem of missing data, 3) The problem of alien test-taking sets, 4) The problem of non-discrimination.

Meaningless Item Check: Items are included in each story that are lofty sounding, using complex style or verbiage, but are essentially meaningless statements. The purpose of these items is to detect respondents who are trying to fake a high score. Because DIT items are essentially fragments of a larger moral argument, respondents who don’t understand the argument can’t distinguish it from items that have complex verbiage but are essentially meaningless.

Antisocial Score: This score represents considerations that reflect an anti-establishment attitude. These considerations presuppose an understanding of Stage 4, but fault existing authorities and “the establishment” for being hypocritical and inconsistent with its own rationale (and is therefore sometimes referred to as Stage 4 ‘/2). For researchers who wish to give personalized feedback on a respondent’s DIT profile, it may be helpful to discuss the
respondent’s tendency to select such items.

Indicators of Validity

Validity for the DIT has been assessed in terms of seven criteria cited in over 400 published articles (Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999; Thoma, 2006):

Differentiation of various age/education groups: Studies of large composite samples (thousands of subjects) show that 30% to 50% of the variance of DIT scores is attributable to level of education in samples ranging from junior-high education to Ph.D.’s.
Longitudinal gains: A 10-year longitudinal study shows significant gains of men and women, of college-attenders and non-college subjects, and people from diverse walks of life. A review of a dozen studies of freshman to senior college students (n=755) shows effect sizes of .80 (“large” gains). DIT gains are one of the most dramatic longitudinal gains in college of any measured developmental variable.
DIT scores are significantly related to cognitive capacity measures of Moral Comprehension (r = .60), to the recall and reconstruction of Postconventional moral arguments, to Kohlberg’s measure, and (to a lesser degree) to other cognitive-developmental measures.
DIT scores are sensitive to moral education interventions: One review of over 50 intervention studies reports an effect size for dilemma discussion interventions to be .40 (moderate gains) while the effect size for comparison groups was only .09 (small gains).
DIT scores are significantly linked to many prosocial behaviors and to desired professional decision making. One review reports that 37 out of 47 measures were statistically significant (see also Rest & Narvaez, 1994, for a discussion of professional decision making).
DIT scores are significantly linked to political attitudes and political choices. In a review of several dozen correlates with political attitudes, DIT scores typically correlate in the range of r = .40 to .65. When combined in multiple regression with measures of cultural ideology, the combination predicts up to two-thirds of the variance of controversial public policy issues (such as abortion, religion in the public schools, women’s roles, rights of the accused, rights of homosexuals, free speech issues).
Reliability–Cronbach’s alpha is in the upper .70s/low .80s. Test-retest reliability is about the same.

Further, DIT scores show discriminant validity from verbal ability/general intelligence and from Conservative/Liberal political attitudes. That is, the information in a DIT score predicts to the seven validity criteria above and beyond that accounted for by verbal ability/general intelligence or political attitudes (Thoma, Narvaez, Rest & Derryberry, 1999). Moreover, the DIT is equally valid for males and females (Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999).

Norms for the DIT-2.

Updated Norms for Defining Issues Test (DIT2-2023)We are pleased to inform DIT users, scholars, and researchers all over the world that the normative information for the DIT2-test has been updated after 14 years.

Moral reasoning development: norms for Defining Issue Test-2 (DIT2)
Author(s): Nahide Gungordu, Ghasim Nabizadehchianeh, Erin O’Connor, Wenchao Ma, and David I. Walker
Access through Journal of Ethics & Behavior

For access to DIT-2 Norms for 2005-2009 please click here.

This file is in .pdf format. To view it, you must have Adobe Acrobat Reader installed on your computer. If you do not have Adobe Acrobat Reader installed, you can go to download it free from the Adobe Web site.

DIT Selected Publications.

Publications and Papers (DIT)

Gungordu, N., Nabizadehchianeh, G., O’Connor, E., Ma, W., & Walker, D. I. (2023). Moral reasoning development: norms for Defining Issue Test-2 (DIT2). Ethics & Behavior, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2023.2206573

Rest, J. (1986). Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Praeger.

Rest, J. & Narvaez, D. (Eds.) (1994). Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rest, J., Thoma, S. J., Narvaez, D., & Bebeau, M. J. (1997). Alchemy and beyond: Indexing the Defining Issues Test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (3), 498-507.

Rest, J. R., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M., & Thoma, S. (1999). Postconventional moral thinking: A neo-Kohlbergian approach. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rest, J., Narvaez, D., Bebeau, M.J., & Thoma, S.J. (1999). A neo-Kohlbergian approach: The DIT and schema theory. Educational Psychology Review, 11 (4), 291- 324.

Thoma, S. J. (2006). Research on the defining issues test. In M. Killen, & J. G. Smetana, Handbook of moral development (pp. 67-91). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Searchable Database of DIT Usage.

The DIT has been used in hundreds of studies across multiple domains including learning, higher education, business, engineering, and medicine. We have built a searchable database of these studies from the last ten years, and though still a work in progress, we have provided our initial search results, of approximately 200 articles. We have created and made available a spreadsheet organized by year, author, title, journal, sample type, sample size, age of sample, region, version of the DIT used, and general notes about the article. Access the spreadsheet here.

Below we have also provided a list of these references with links to the articles.

We hope this is helpful for researchers interested in the DIT and we will continue to update this database as we complete our reviews of the available literature.

References

Schauster, E. (2024). Doing the Right Thing in Advertising: Moral Education and Training. Journal of Advertising Education, 28(2), 96-114. https://doi.org/10.1177/10980482241275591

Craig, D. A., Plaisance, P. L., Schauster, E., Roberts, C., Place, K. R., Yetter, C., & Chen, J. (2024). Moral Identity Development Among Emerging Adults in Media: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Media Ethics, 39(3), 170-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/23736992.2024.2375514

Schauster, E. (2023). Beyond Moral Reasoning Scores: Life Story Interviews and the Interpersonal Nature of Advertising. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 44(2), 225-248. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2023.2194348

Han, H. (2023). Validating the behavioral Defining Issues Test across different genders, political, and religious affiliations. Experimental Results, 4, e6, Article e6. https://doi.org/10.1017/exp.2023.6

Miranda-Rodríguez, R. A., Leenen, I., Han, H., Palafox-Palafox, G., & García-Rodríguez, G. (2023). Moral reasoning and moral competence as predictors of cooperative behavior in a social dilemma. Scientific Reports, 13, 3724. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30314-7

Schauster, E., & Plaisance, P. (2021). The Moral Psychology and Exemplarism of Leaders in Advertising. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 15(4), 375-394. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2021.1958333

Schauster, E., Neill, M. S., Ferrucci, P., & Tandoc, E. (2020). Public Relations Primed: An Update on Practitioners’ Moral Reasoning, from Moral Development to Moral Maintenance. Journal of Media Ethics, 35(3), 164-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/23736992.2020.1779595

Abdolmohammadi, M. J., & Baker, C. R. (2007, February). The relationship between moral reasoning and plagiarism in accounting courses: A replication study. Issues in Accounting Education, 22(1), 45-55.

Abdolmohammadi, M. J., & Ariail, D. L. (2009). A test of the selection-socialization theory in moral reasoning of CPAs in industrypractice. Behavioral Research in Accounting, 21(2), 1-12.

Abdolmohammadi, M. J., & Bake, C. R. (2008). Moral Reasoning and Questionable Behavior: A Study of Extensive Copying from the Internet by Accounting Students. The CPA Journal, 78(11), 54-61.

Abdolmohammadi, M. J., & Baker, C. R. (2006). Accountants’ value preferences and moral reasoning. Journal of Business Ethics, 69, 11-25.

Abdolmohammadi, M. J., Fedorowicz, J., & Davis, O. (2009). Accountants’ cognitive styles and ethical reasoning: A comparison across 15 years. Journal of Accounting Education, 27, 185-196.

Allen, P. W., & Ennis, K. L. (2010). CPAs’ Moral Reasoning and Support for Expanding Sarbanes‐Oxley to Nonpublic Entities. American Journal of Business Research, 3(1), 5-16.

Allen, P. W., & Ennis, K. L. (2011). Rule-Based Moral Reasoning and CPAs’ Political Ideology.Academy of Business Journal, 7-15.
Al-Rumaidhi, K. M. (2008). Moral reasoning among Kuwaiti adolescents. Social Behavior and Personality, 36(1), 115-122.

Al-Shurai, S. (2012, Winter). An empirical investigation of the moral judgment development of a sample of high school Kuwaiti teachers.Education, 133(2), 340-348.

Ambrose, M. L., Arnaud, A., & Schminke, M. (2008). Individual moral development and ethical climate: The influence of person-organization fit on job attitudes.Journal of Business Ethics, 77, 323-333.

Antes, A. L., Murphy, S. T., Waples, E. P., Mumford, M. D., Brown, R. P., Connelly, S., & Devenport, L. D. (2009). A Meta-Analysis of Ethics Instruction Effectiveness in the Sciences.Ethics & Behavior, 19(5), 379–402.

Apostolou, B., Dull, R., & Schleifer, L. L. (2013). A framework for the pedagogy of accounting ethics. Accounting Education, 22(1), 1-17.

Arroyo-Almaraz, I., & Gomez-Diaz, R. (2015). The undesired effects of digital communication on moral response. Communicar, 22(44).

Ashkanasy, N. M., Windsor, C. A., & Treviiio, L. K. (2006, October). Bad apples in bad barrels revisited: Cognitive moral development, just world beliefs, rewards, and ethical decision making. Business Ethics Quarterly, 16(4), 449-473.

Auger, G. A., & Gee, C. (2016). Developing moral maturity: An evaluation of the media ethics course using the DIT-2. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 71(2), 146-162.

Bailey, C. D. (2011). Does the Defining Issues Test measure ethical judgment ability or political position? The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(3), 314-330.

Bailey, C. D., Scott, I., & Thoma, S. J. (2010). Revitalizing accounting ethics research in the Neo-Kohlbergian framework: Putting the DIT into perspective.Behavioral Research in Accounting, 22(2), 1-26.

Baril, G. L., & Wright, J. C. (2012). Different types of moral cognition: Moral stages versus moral foundations. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 468-473.

Batchelor, C., Creed, A., & McKeegan, D. (2015, August). A preliminary investigation into the moral reasoning abilities of UK veterinarians. Veterinary Record: Journal of the British Veterinary Association, 177(5), 124.

Benbassat, J. (2014). Changes in well-being and professional values among medical undergraduate students: a narrative review of the literature. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 19(4), 597–610.

Bernacki, M. L., & Jaeger, E. (2008). Exploring the Impact of Service-Learning on Moral Development and Moral Orientation. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 14, 5-15.

Bohm, K. C., Van Heest, T., Gioe, T. J., Agel, J., Johnson, T. C., & Van Heest, A. (2014). Assessment of moral reasoning skills in the orthopaedic surgery resident applicant. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 96A(17), 1-6.

Bosco, S. M., Melchar, D. E., Beauvais, L. L., & Desplaces, D. E. (2010). Teaching business ethics: the effectiveness of common pedagogical practices in developing students’ moral judgment competence. Ethics and Education, 5(3), 263-280.

Bowman, N. (2009). College Diversity Courses and Cognitive Development Among Students From Privileged and Marginalized Groups. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2(3), 182-194.

Bowman, N. A. (2010). Assessing Learning and Development Among Diverse College Students. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2010(145), 53-71.

Bowman, N. A. (2010). Can 1st-Year College Students Accurately Report Their Learning and Development? American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 466–496.

Brady, N., & Hart, D. (2007). An exploration into the developmental psychology of ethical theory with implications for business practice and pedagogy. Journal of Business Ethics, 76, 397-412.

Brandenberger, J. W., & Bowman, N. A. (2015). Prosocial growth during college: Results of a national study. Journal of Moral Education, 44(3), 328-345.

Brandon, D. M., Kerler III, W. A., Killough, L. N., & Mueller, J. M. (2007). The joint influence of client attributes and cognitive moral development on students’ ethical judgments. Journal of Accounting Education, 25, 59-73.

Brown-Liburd, H. L., & Porco, B. M. (2011). It’s what’s outside that counts: Do extracurricular experiences affect the cognitive moral development of undergraduate accounting students? Issues in Accounting Education, 26(2), 439-454.

Buono, A. F., Fletcher-Brown, D., Frederick, R., Hall, G. J., & Sultan, J. (2012, Summer). Acting ethically: Moral reasoning and business school student behavior. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 18-26.

Butler, M. N., Hammel, L. R., & Mascia, S. M. (2011). Utilizing moral reasoning assessment to inform character education in college level business programs. Proceedings of the Northeast Business & Economics Association (pp. 63-67). Northeast Business & Economics Association.

Campbell, J., Schermer, J. A., Villani, V. C., Nguyen, B., Vickers, L., & Vernon, P. A. (2009). A Behavioral Genetic Study of the Dark Triad of Personality and Moral Development.Twin Research and Human Genetics, 12(2), 132-136.

Cannon, E. P. (2008, December). Promoting moral reasoning and multicultural competence during internship. Journal of Moral Education, 37(4), 503-518.

Cesur, S., & Sami Topcu, M. (2010). A reliability and validity study of the Defining Issues Test: The relationship of age, education, gender and parental education with moral development. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 10(3), 1657-1696.

Chan, Y. (2006). The effects of accounting students’ ethical reasoning and personal factors on their ethical sensitivity. Managerial Auditing Journal, 21(6), 436-457.

Chang, C. J., & Yen, S. H. (2007). The Effects of Moral Development and Adverse Selection Conditions on Managers’ Project Continuance Decisions: A Study in the Pacific-Rim Region. Journal of Business Ethics, 76(3), 347–360.

Chang, L. H. (2007). Moral Reasoning of Malaysian Adolescents. International Journal of Learning, 14(5), 149-159.

Choi, Y-J., Han, H., Bankhead, M., & Thoma, S. (2020). Validity study using factor analyses on the Defining Issues Test-2 in undergraduate populations.PLOS One, 15(8), e0238110. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238110

Christensen, A. L., Cote, J., & Latham, C. L. (2016). Insights regarding the applicability of the defining issues test to advance ethics research with accounting students: A metaanalytic review. Journal of Business Ethics, 133, 141-163.

Cohen, J. R., Holder-Webb, L., Sharp, D. J., & Pant, L. W. (2007, Winter). The effects of perceived fairness on opportunistic behavior.Contemporary Accounting Research, 24(4), 1119-1138.

Coldwell, D. A., Billsberry, J., van Meurs, N., & Marsh, P. J. (2008). The Effects of Person–Organization Ethical Fit on Employee Attraction and Retention: Towards a Testable Explanatory Model. Journal of Business Ethics, 78(4), 611–622.

Coleman, R. (2011). Journalists’ moral judgment about children: Do as I say, not as I do? Journalism Practice, 5(3), 257-271.

Coleman, R., & Wilkins, L. (2009). The Moral Development of Public Relations Practitioners: A Comparison With Other Professions and Influences on Higher Quality Ethical Reasoning. Journal of Public Relations Research, 21(3), 318-340.

Connelly, B. S., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Schmeelk, K. M. (2006). Integrity Tests and Morality: Associations with Ego Development, Moral Reasoning, and Psychopathic Personality. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14(1), 82-86.

Contessa, J., Kyriakides, T., & Kim, D. (2012, January/February). Can moral reasoning predict general surgery residents’ clinical competence? Journal of Surgical Education, 69(1), 17-22.

Cooper, M., & Schwartz, R. (2007). Moral Judgment and Student Discipline: What Are Institutions Teaching? What Are Students
Learning? Journal of College Student Development, 48(5), 595-607.

Craig, P. J., & Nodie Oja, S. (2013). Moral judgment changes among undergraduates in a capstone internship experience. Journal of Moral Education, 42(1), 43-70.

Crossman, H. A. (2011). A comparative analysis of the cognitive moral development of independent public auditors and bank examiners. Review of Management Innovation & Creativity, 4(12), 52-70.

Cummings, R., Harlow , S., & Maddux, C. D. (2007, March). Moral reasoning of in-service and pre-service teachers: A review of the research.Journal of Moral Education, 36(1), 67-78.

Cummings, R., Maddux, C. D., Cladianos, A., & Richmond, A. (2010, March). Moral reasoning of education students: The effects of direct instruction in moral development theory and participation in moral dilemma discussion. Teachers College Record, 112(3), 621-644.

Curzer, H. J., Sattler, S., DuPree, D. G., & Smith-Genthos, K. (2014). Do ethics classes teach ethics? Theory and Research in Education, 12(3), 366-382.

Dellaportas , S. (2006). Making a difference with a discrete course on accounting ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 65, 391-404.

Dellaportas, S., Cooper, B. J., & Leung, P. (2006). Measuring moral judgment and the implications of cooperative education and rule-based learning.Accounting and Finance, 46, 53-70.

Derryberry, P. W., Mulvaney, R., Brooks, J., & Chandler, C. (2009). Addressing the relationships among moral judgment development, authenticity, nonprejudice, and volunteerism. Ethics & Behavior, 19(3), 201-217.

Derryberry, W. P., Snyder, H., Wilson , T., & Barger , B. (2006, May). Moral judgment differences in education and liberal arts majors: Cause for concern? Journal of College & Character, VII(4), 1-10.

Desplaces, D. E., Melchar, D. E., Beauvais, L. L., & Bosco, S. M. (2007). The impact of business education on moral judgment competence: An empirical study.Journal of Business Ethics, 74, 73-87.

Diessner, R., Davis, L., & Toney, B. (2009). Empirical relationships between beauty and justice: Testing Scarry and elaborating Danto. Psychology of Aesthetics, 3(4), 249-258.

Dotger, B. H. (2010). “I had no idea”: Developing dispositional awareness and sensitivity through a cross-professional pedagogy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 805-812.

Doyle , E., Frecknall-Hughes , J., & Summers, B. (2014). Ethics in tax practice: A study of the effect of practitioner firm size. Journal of Business Ethics, 122, 623-641. doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1780-5.

Doyle, E., & O’Flaherty, J. (2013). The impact of education level and type on moral reasoning. Irish Educational Studies,32(3), 377-393.

Doyle, E., Frecknall-Hughes , J., & Summers , B. (2013). An empirical analysis of the ethical reasoning of tax practitioners. Journal of Business

Diessner, R., Davis, L., & Toney, B. (2009). Empirical relationships between beauty and justice: Testing Scarry and elaborating
Danto. Psychology of Aesthetics, 3(4), 249-258. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1347-x.

Doyle, E., Frecknall-Hughes, J., & Summers , B. (2009). Research methods in taxation ethics: Developing the Defining Issues Test (DIT) for a tax-specific scenario. Journal of Business Ethics, 88, 35-52. doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0101-5.

Eberhardt-Toth, E., & Wasieleski, D. M. (2013). A cognitive elaboration model of sustainability decision making: Investigating financial managers’ orientation toward environmental issues.Journal of Business Ethics, 117, 735-751. doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1715-1.

Edwards, I., van Kessel, G., Jones, M., Beckstead, J., & Swisher, L. (2012). The development of moral judgment and organization of ethical knowledge in final year physical therapy students.Physical Therapy Reviews, 17(3), 157-166.

Ellis, J. L. (2013, Fall). Accounting ethics education: Proposed pedagogy applying cognitive moral development. Journal of Business and Accounting, 6(1), 65-76.

Emler, N., Tarry, H., & St. James, A. (2007). Post-conventional moral reasoning and reputation. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 76-89.

Eriksen, K. P., & McAuliffe, G. J. (2006, March). Constructive development and counselor competence. Counselor Education & Supervision, 45, 180-192.

Ferrucci, P., Tandoc, E., & Schauster E. (2019). Journalists primed: How professional identity impacts ethical decision-making. Journalism Practice. https://doi-org.colorado.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/17512786.2019.1673202

Finelli, C. J., Holsapple, M. A., Ra , E., Bielby, R. M., Burt , B. A., Carpenter, D. D., Sutkus , J. A. (2012, July). An assessment of engineering students curricular and co-curricular experiences and their ethical development. Journal of Engineering Education, 101(3), 469-494.

Fletcher-Brown, D., Buono, A. F., Frederick, R., Hall , G., & Sultan, J. (2012, March). A longitudinal study of the effectiveness of business ethics education: Establishing the baseline. Journal of Academic Ethics, 10(1), 45-56.

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Gallagher, C. T. (2011). Assessment of levels of moral reasoning in pharmacy students at different stages of the undergraduate curriculum. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 19, 374-380.

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